Standards, or "exemplars", are the known, verifiable handwriting samples that are compared to the disputed handwriting.
It is important to remember that, in an examination involving disputed handwriting, the standards can make or break your case. If the examiner has poor standards, this will impact the strength of the opinion.

The most important factor in any document examination is the quality of the standards (the documents of known origin that are compared with the questioned documents). The questioned document is important too, but it is a "given". It defines the outer limits of the examination, but how far the examiner can go within those limits depends on the standards.
 

Types and Amounts of Writing Specimens Required for Comparison
 

Forensic handwriting and signature comparisons require access to a suitable and adequate quantity of specimen material. Some suspect writers will readily provide specimen handwriting on request.  In other instances, documents that the suspect wrote while carrying out his business or personal affairs may be the only materials available.

There must be no doubt about the authenticity of the standards. The document examiner needs to be able to rely on the standards, and the standards may need to be accepted as evidence in court.

The following guidelines should ensure the document examiner is provided with proper standards needed to reach a meaningful conclusion:
 

First, all submitted "known" handwriting for comparison should be:
 

• relevant (compare signatures to signatures - numbers to numbers)
• contemporaneous (bracketing the date of the disputed handwriting)
• in sufficient numbers, and
• as often as possible, original documents.
   

Next, there are two categories of known writings submitted for comparison with questioned handwritten material:
 

• Collected (non-request) writings (handwriting standards), are writings executed in the normal course of business and are unrelated to the case under investigation.
• Requested writings (exemplars) consist of handwriting, signatures or printing produced solely for the purpose of conducting a handwriting comparison. "Requested" specimens are often prepared at the request of the person seeking the services of a handwriting expert.
   

Results of handwriting comparisons tend to be more conclusive and meaningful when both "requested" and "collected" exemplars are available.

Collected standards are those already in existence - such as bank records, letters, legal forms, and the like. These standards can be obtained by an attorney or investigator,  or presented by others (family members, business associates, etc.) who have access to documents written by an individual. In other instances, the suspect or victim can voluntarily provide handwritten documents he/she prepared at an earlier time.

"Collected" standards have the following advantages:

• Since they are usually naturally written, influences attributed to disguise or nervousness are usually not a factor.  
• They can be selected to be contemporaneous with the date of the questioned document.
   

"Collected" standards also have a number of disadvantages:

• It can be difficult to prove who wrote them.  
• The conditions that prevailed at the time of writing are often unknown.  
• They may have been produced by different writing materials than those used to prepare the questioned document.  
• It is difficult to locate samples that contain repetitions of the questioned text.
   

An overall benefit in the use of collected writings is that they are natural - but they may be limited in quantity and in their comparability to the questioned text.

 

As mentioned above, "requested" exemplars are written by an individual at the request of and in the presence of a witness.

They are of value in handwriting comparison because the investigator controls the test and ensures that it is directly comparable to the questioned entries. The investigator also controls the number of known documents prepared, so the document examiner is assured of having a sufficient number of examples of each of the questioned letter combinations and words for comparison.
 

 Specific advantages include:

• If prepared properly, they contain letters and letter combinations similar to those which appear in the questioned writing.
• They should contain repetitions of the questioned text and thus better represent the individual's full range of writing habits.
• They are usually admissible in court proceedings because they have been witnessed.
• They can be prepared with writing materials (i.e. pen, pencil, paper, cardboard, etc.) similar to those used to prepare the questioned document.
• The format or arrangement of the questioned writing can usually be duplicated.
• They can be prepared under similar writing conditions to those that prevailed when the questioned document was produced.
   

"Requested" exemplars also have certain disadvantages:

• The writing is done at one sitting, so the natural variation in the writing may not likely to be as large as in collected writings made individually over a period of time and under varying conditions.
• The writing may not be entirely natural or representative of the writer's normal habits. The writer is aware of their purpose and, rather than being naturally and freely written, "requested" specimens may display features associated with nervousness. Knowing the writings are being collected for the purpose of comparison in a criminal investigation, an innocent person may write more carefully than usual, and a guilty one may intentionally attempt to disguise his handwriting. 
   

An overall benefit of requested or dictated writings is that they can exactly reproduce the questioned text and are available in quantity - but they may be of limited use because of their limited range of variation and possible unnaturalness. Occasionally, it may not be possible to obtain "requested" samples. (In those instances, efforts should be directed at locating as many "collected" samples as possible.)

All of these circumstances will be taken into account during the document examination.

A forensic document examination cannot be adequately performed when comparing a single signature to but one other signature. Handwriting identification is based on habits that can only be determined through scrutinizing numerous specimens. While there are unusual cases where one or two signatures or a few typewritten lines will suffice, much depends on the nature of the question. Be aware that in many cases the amount of standard material is an issue, and begin to amass samples early in the investigation. 

For example, in cases where varying letter forms is an issue, if the examiner doesn't see enough standard writing, he or she will not have the information needed to form a good opinion. Typewriting cases often depend on identification of some individualizing defect of a machine. Defects can be sporadic, especially in their developmental stages. A few lines of typing or a quick run through the alphabet will not yield enough material to reveal the real character of the typing element.
 

No two instances of naturally written words or signatures produced by the same person
are identical in every detail.
Every handwriting shows natural variation.

This is due to the body's inability to carry out actions with machine-like precision. No individual's writing, when executed in a free and natural manner, is void of that element of writing known as "natural variation". A person's handwriting is greatly influenced by reflexive movements, and will disclose minor, but detectable changes attributable to his/her mood, physical condition, muscular co-ordination and external influences such as writing conditions, drugs, alcohol, nervousness or the nature of the document bearing the writing.

The handwriting and signatures of some writers can be remarkably consistent. Samples written on one occasion will appear similar to those produced weeks, months or even years later. In these cases, the writer's range of variation is described as limited and it is often possible to reach a conclusive opinions using only a few exemplars. In other cases, an individual's writing might considerably, - either infrequently or habitually. As mentioned, many factors can contribute to the varied appearance of one's writing.  In these cases, many more specimens are needed to isolate individual writing features and determine their significance.

In spite of natural variation, the developed handwriting of every person contains habitual features that are as peculiar as any of his/her habits or mannerisms. The quantity of specimens needed to represent a person's writing or signature habits depends on both the extent of the contested writing and the internal consistency of the handwriting. If the questioned writing consists of a single signature, then perhaps 10-15 specimen signatures are all that is needed. However, if the questioned material consists of several pages of handwriting, printing and signatures, then significantly more samples will be required to establish a suspect's writing habits.
 

So, in answer to the question, "How much is enough?, there is not an "across the board" answer.
Within the realm of practicality, there cannot be too many standards.
- And remember, quantity is no substitute for quality !

Sources for Collected Handwriting Standards
 

When undertaking the collection of known handwriting standards, keep in mind that the best standards are those that most closely resemble the same timeframe, circumstances, materials and content of the questioned document. Therefore, look for standards that were executed close in time to the document in question. This is especially crucial in cases involving illness, death, accident, mental imbalance, substance abuse, or anything likely to cause a dramatic change in the subject's behavior. One’s handwriting can change or evolve over long and even short periods of time. Handwriting and signature specimens should be dated as close as possible to the date of the purported writings - ideally, from a few months before to a few months after to offset this phenomenon. This is particularly important if the purported writer is elderly, ill or sustained an injury around the date of the writings.

Attempt to find out everything possible about the circumstances under which the questioned document was allegedly executed. Was the individual lying sick in bed, standing at a counter, holding a clipboard in his or her lap? Try to collect handwriting standards for comparison that were written under similar conditions.

Is the questioned document a check, letter, legal form, passport? For example, if the authenticity of a signature on a personal check is in question, it would be ideal to collect 10-15 consecutively numbered personal checks that surround the date when the questioned document was written.

Is it written on blank paper, lined paper, graph paper, cardboard? Was pencil, ballpoint, felt tip or fountain pen used? If there was anything unusual about the materials of the questioned document, try to duplicate that uniqueness in your collection of standards.

Content can be pivotal in a document examination. Make every effort to include in your handwriting standards collection those that share letter combinations, words, phrases or numbers with the questioned document.

Following is a list of potential sources to assist you in your collection of handwriting standards:

While originals afford the examiner the optimal material evidence to examine, document examinations must sometimes be performed on photocopies alone - from beginning to end. When submitting or working with copies, it is therefore essential to keep track of the generation of any copy made. With each successive copy some loss of detail and addition of superfluous markings can occur. Sometimes a good opinion can be formed based on photocopies and sometimes it cannot. Of course, original documents are always preferred.

Guidelines  for Obtaining Requested Writing Exemplars
 

There is a method for obtaining good requested standards. The investigator should be prepared in advance to obtain though dictation, both verbatim and non-verbatim known, requested writings (exemplars). This is more likely to yield request writings sufficient for identification or elimination of the writer as the author of a questioned document. Taking proper handwriting specimens involves more than collecting a few hurried autographs onto a sheet of notebook paper. It takes preparation, attentiveness and an understanding of a prescribed approach that will yield informative and defensible comparison samples.
 

Preparation

Always study the questioned writing ahead of time so you know its content and what kind of writing (handwriting or hand printing, upper case or lower case) was used. This is important because, for best results, the known requested writings must be comparable in terms of content and type of writing to the questioned document.

Ensure you can provide a setting for writing that is comparable to the setting of which the document in question was prepared. For instance, if the document is a check that was signed at a teller window, the subject should stand in front of a tall table when preparing the specimens. If the writing is graffiti on a bathroom wall, then a large sheet of butcher paper would be taped to a smooth wall accordingly.

Obtain or prepare a collection of exemplar forms for the writer to use. It is important that the exemplar form be similar to the questioned document so the writer has similar lines, blocks, and space in which to write. Size, spacing, and placement of the writing may be affected by the size and shape of the document and the space allowed for the written entry. Do not use general purpose exemplar forms (e.g. the alphabet, numerals, and fictitious signatures) if you know what the questioned document looks like. If questioned document was written on tablet paper, stationary, etc. use similar paper. If the document in question is a form such as a legal document or a credit card receipt, obtain a sufficient quantity of  identical blank forms. If you must use a photocopier to duplicate forms, ensure that it produces a clean white background for the writing. Do not photocopy forms printed on safety paper (e.g. traveler's checks). The photocopied background makes it difficult to examine the writing. If no identical forms are available, forms with a similar amount and arrangement of writing space may be used. Blank forms can also be hand drawn as a last resort.

Have available certain writing instruments and papers that will provide the best adjuncts possible for obtaining normal, natural handwriting. Ideally, determine what type of writing instrument was used to prepare the questioned entries and provide similar instruments to the writer of the exemplars. For instance, if the writing is in ball point pen, obtain numerous sizes of ball point pens and allow the subject to select that which is most comfortable for him or her. The subject may also wish to use their own ball point pen which would certainly be appropriate and desirable. Be aware, some instruments, such as some fiber tip pens, tend to obscure small writing features. A ballpoint pen provides a clearer record of the written line.

Whenever possible, obtain collected specimens prior to taking the requested specimens. This will provide you with samples of the subject's handwriting that are normal and natural in nature. If none can be found, request some form of signed identification such as a driver’s license. Make a copy of this identification.

In any handwriting case that involves requested writing exemplars, the material to be written must always be dictated to the subject, rather than copied by the subject. If a language barrier exists, it is prudent to employ the services of an interpreter (foreign language or sign-language) to facilitate this process. It is not acceptable, and compromises the veracity of the exemplars to afford the subject the opportunity to copy text from any source - especially a document in question!

Whenever possible, obtain collected, known writings (standards) before the dictated writings. Observe the slant, speed, and general appearance of the collected writings so you may recognize whether the dictated writings are being executed in a valid fashion during the interview. If not, you may need to implement measures to prevent the writer from distorting or disguising his/her handwriting.

After allowing the subject a few moments to do some free writing to "loosen up", you are ready to obtain requested samples from the subject.

First and foremost, allow the writer to have only one exemplar form in front of him/her/her at a time to be executed.

One drawback common to requested specimens is the purposeful attempt at disguise. The first few specimens taken should be carefully scrutinized for marked characteristics of disguise. One useful approach is to request samples of the subject’s signature and make a cursory comparison of these samples to his/her signature on an existing identification card. This does not require an
in-depth review but rather an overview of the general appearance.

If you are especially interested in exemplar signatures, employ several forms or blanks with the same layout as the questioned document for the subject to sign. Have the subject sign these forms one at a time. A column of signatures on a single sheet of paper may be useful if it appears in conjunction with several other types of exemplars, but by itself is not the best exemplar for examination. A column of ten signatures executed in this fashion tends to become ten copies of one initial signature - rather than ten distinct signatures.

Depending on the questioned document, it may be important to request that the subject write in printed or cursive form. If a forensic document examiner is to compare cursive writings, they cannot perform a thorough examination from printed specimens. Submissions should include letters and letter combinations that are repeated in the questioned writings. Also, it may be necessary to request samples written with the unaccustomed ("wrong") hand.

For the first few exemplars, give the writer only minimal instructions. Allow him/her to do what comes naturally. After that, you may instruct him/her on when to write or print, or when to capitalize, etc.

Next, it is recommended that a general handwriting form be completed. A general handwriting form is a document containing numerous names, numbers and words that are to be completed by the subject. Attempts to disguise writing usually results in a non-uniform appearance to the writing (the slant changes or the size of the writing changes).

Number the exemplars in the sequence in which they were written. Make notes of the instructions given to the writer and provide that information with the laboratory examination request.

Verbatim dictated exemplars are those that duplicate (in content) each questioned entry. This type of specimen allows the forensic document examiner to scrutinize characteristics that interrelate between characters such as relative letter heights, baseline habits and such. It is generally recommended that 15-20 verbatim request specimens be taken.

Again, depending on the document in question, it may be important to request that the subject write in printed or cursive form; just as it may be necessary to request samples written with the unaccustomed hand.

Duplicate the questioned document (s) to be used as your dictated "known". Then dictate the text material content at a reasonable speed. When extended handwriting samples are dictated, the speed of dictation should be varied. Do not give any help with spelling or punctuation. Have the subject sign and date each sample as it is executed. Immediately take the exemplar and set it safely aside, out of the subject's view. After some general conversation, ask the subject to repeat the task. This is a good time to request that the subject use a different paper or writing instrument if appropriate. Dictate a bit faster the second time. More repetitions may or may not be needed.

Do not make lists by taking multiple known, repeated exemplars on the same sheet of paper. That is, do not have the subject write the same sample of text 15-20 times on one sheet of paper.

Nor should you provide the unrestricted space of a whole sheet of bond paper for brief entries (like signatures). Doing so tends to result in unnaturally enlarged writing.

As always, number the samples so that the document examiner will be aware of the sequence in which the exemplars were executed; and always keep a separate anecdotal record of anything unusual that happens during the session.

(Printable Version Below)
 

Preserving the Integrity Of Documents
 

The improper handling of questioned documents can seriously impair and diminish the scope of detailed scientific examination. In that questioned documents present such important evidence to the examiner for scientific analysis, it is a pity that ignorance regarding proper handling and storage procedures should conceivably destroy substantial evidence - before it is ever delivered for examination.

Following are common sense guidelines, which if properly observed,  can greatly contribute to the successful preservation of document evidence:

(Printable Version Below)

Unless an attorney or investigator has been involved in a questioned document case, they often have no reason to think of the necessary precautions. Each point made here can be elaborated upon with detailed recommendations pertinent to a specific document or case in question.

The best way to assure good results is to contact the document examiner early in the investigation and work with the examiner to plan an approach to your specific case.
 

Printable Guidelines

Feel free to print out and use the following documents to guide you in your work...

Acknowledgements:

This webpage is based upon the author's experience and borrows heavily from the following works and websites:

Hilton, Ordway, Scientific Examination of Questioned Documents, revised edition, Elsevier Series in Forensic Science, N.Y., 1984
Osborn, Albert S., Questioned Documents, Second Edition, Patterson Smith, Montclair, NJ, 1929
http://www.asqde.org
http://www.forgeryfinder.com
http://www.handwritingfingerprintexperts.com
http://www.state.ia.us/government/dps/dci/lab/document.htm
http://qdewill.com

Disclaimer: We are not attorneys.  We do not dispense legal advice in any fashion.  We only comment on our experiences as it relates to cases we have personally been involved in regarding handwriting, forgeries, or expert witnesses.  If you want legal advice, you must consult a licensed attorney in your state.

© 2005 DIANA KING, RN, LNC, Forensic Document Examiner. All rights reserved.